THE WAR DURING 1918

On March 21, 1918, the Germans launched a great offensive in the Somme River region. This drive to win the war had been planned by the German generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff. The battle began with a great artillery duel, followed by a rush of German troops. In a few days the advancing Germans overran the entire territory which the British and French had taken two years to capture. The offensive ended on April 6. The Germans gained about 35 miles. About 2,000 Americans in small units served well with the British in preventing the drive from becoming a rout. The situation, however, was now grave. Marshal Ferdinand Foch was made commander in chief of the Allied armies. American troops, although not yet battle seasoned, were now to be used in combat units. On May 27 the Germans again attacked in great force along the Aisne River. For a week the French retreated. The battle front soon was back on the Marne River at Chateau-Thierry, only 44 miles from Paris. Three American divisions were thrown into action at Chateau-Thierry, Cantigny, and Belleau Wood. In both defense and counterattack the Yanks showed they were willing to make heavy sacrifices for victory. In proving their fighting ability they also inspired the veteran French and British troops to heroic efforts in stopping the Germans. The German drive was halted on June 4.

The Allies Advance

On July 15 the Germans started another drive. This developed into the second battle of the Marne. Now, however, the tide turned. French and American troops crushed the western flank of the German line from Chateau-Thierry north. The Germans ran for the Aisne to avoid capture. Twelve hard-fighting American divisions took part in this Allied offensive. On August 8 the British opened a drive along the Somme. The Canadian corps drove forward eight miles on the first day. This was the greatest single day's advance against resistance in the war. In a little more than a month the Allies took 100,000 prisoners, and the Germans were in full retreat. To prepare the way for the final drive to victory the American troops cut off the St-Mihiel salient in September. The major drive through the Argonne Forest, then northward along the Meuse from Verdun to Sedan, began on September 26. Continuing into November, the French and American forces moved northward, fighting every inch of the way. To the north even the little Belgian army now began a drive. In a few days it had won more territory than the British had been able to gain in four months during the previous year. While Germany was receiving these staggering blows, its allies were collapsing. Bulgaria signed an armistice on September 30. Turkey followed Bulgaria by surrendering on October 31. Italy recovered from the Caporetto disaster and inflicted a sharp defeat on Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary was granted an armistice on November 3 to take effect November 4. The armistice granted to Austria-Hungary required it to demobilize its army, to surrender large strips of territory, and to give up most of its navy. It also had to expel German troops from inside its borders, and it had to let the Allies use its railroads. These terms amounted to unconditional surrender.

Collapse of Germany

Germany's home front collapsed as its armies retreated on all battle fronts. On October 3 the German rulers requested an armistice. While the Allies were discussing terms, mutiny broke out in the German fleet at Kiel. It spread to Hamburg and Bremen. The Independent Socialists in Berlin now refused to support the government any longer. Rulers of the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurttemberg abdicated. The German kaiser himself abdicated at Spa on November 9 and fled to The Netherlands (see Germany, section on history). A temporary government was formed at Berlin. This government arranged for a national convention to be held at Weimar to form a republic. The armistice terms were now ready, and the Germans were called to receive them. A delegation crossed the lines and was taken to Marshal Foch's railroad traveling car headquarters near Compiegne. At daybreak on November 11 the Germans signed a general armistice. Six hours later, at 11:00 AM, the guns stopped firing.

Terms of the Armistice

The terms of the armistice were hard. President Wilson had warned the Germans that they would be. The German army was required to retire to a line about six miles east of the Rhine River. Allied troops would be allowed to occupy the evacuated territory together with the cities of Mainz, Cologne, and Coblenz. Most of the German fleet was surrendered to the Allies. This included all submarines. The Germans also had to give up great quantities of military supplies. These included 5,000 cannon, 25,000 machine guns, 5,000 locomotives, and 150,000 railroad cars. The treaties imposed on the Russians and the Romanians earlier in the war were revoked. The Germans, finally, had to surrender all their prisoners and promise to pay reparations for the war damage Germany had done. The Germans began the withdrawal of their troops at once. The Allied troops followed closely without trouble. The war was now at an end. There still remained the task of planning for peace.

HOW THE WAR CAME
TO THE UNITED STATES

The United States was a neutral nation when World War I started in 1914. It was an American tradition that the wars of Europe were not the business of the United States. Under international law the United States as a neutral had the right to continue its trade with any of the nations at war (see Blockade; International Law). Events soon brought a change in the attitude of the United States toward the war. Germany's actions caused this change. Most Americans objected to Germany's violation of Belgian neutrality. Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare was a violation of international law. Acts of German sabotage in the United States and the use of poison gas in warfare also helped to change American public opinion. Americans soon came to believe that democratic government would be unsafe if Germany won the war.

America Enters the War

President Wilson tried hard during his first term in office to keep the United States out of the war. He also tried to get the warring nations to negotiate a peace (see Wilson, Woodrow). President Wilson's efforts failed. Germany continued its unrestricted submarine warfare. On March 4, 1917, Wilson was inaugurated for a second term. On April 2 he read to Congress a message stating that war had already begun by the acts of Germany. He stated the aim of the United States in entering the war was to make a "world safe for democracy." Congress declared war on April 6, 1917. Some preparations for war had already been made in the United States. For example, Congress in 1916 had passed the National Defense Act. This enlarged the army. Appropriations for a larger navy had also been approved. In 1916 Congress had created a Council of National Defense. The Council was to prepare for mobilization of the civilian population and to co-ordinate industries and resources for national security and defense. All these preparedness efforts, however, had made America only partially ready for war. The greatest war effort the United States had ever made still lay ahead.

Organizing the Army

America's Regular Army numbered less than 135,000 men. The Allies urged that an American unit be sent overseas at once to help morale. The 1st Division landed in France on June 26, 1917. It fired its first shot Oct. 23, 1917. Major General John J. Pershing was made commander in chief of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) on May 26, 1917. He also landed in France in June. Pershing told the United States War Department soon after his arrival that America should try to have an army of one million men in France by the following May. He also urged that the AEF should in time grow to from 3 to 4 million men (see Pershing). Nearly 3 million men were taken into military service under the Selective Service Act. This Act had been passed on May 18, 1917 (see Conscription). Of the 93 combat divisions which were organized, 42 reached France and 30 saw combat service. Some 20,000 freight cars and 1,500 locomotives were shipped in sections to France and assembled there by railway engineers. Every combat division needed 25 carloads of supplies for its daily use. The job of providing food and equipment was handled by the Services of Supply. The chief purchasing agent was Gen. Charles G. Dawes.

The Work of the AEF

In theory American troops were to be sent to France in divisions of 30,000 fighting men. Actually they were sent as ships were found to carry them. Some troops that arrived in France were fully trained and equipped. Others had not even been taught how to load their rifles. Many of the soldiers had been called into service from reserve and guard units. For a year after the United States entered the war England was slow in lending ships to transport American troops. The danger of German success changed this. England provided troopships, and through the five months after April 1918 nearly 10,000 American troops a day were sent to France. It was not until August, however, that plans were made to use the American First Army as a unit. Before that American soldiers were used piecemeal to fill the gaps when troops of the other Allied armies broke before the German advance.

Organizing the Home Front

The servicemen needed clothing, food, and weapons. They also needed proper medical attention in camp and overseas. To meet all these needs the Council of National Defense set up the War Industries Board in the summer of 1917. The Food Administration urged greater production of food. It also taught the civilian population to go without sugar, wheat flour, meats, and fats. These foods were shipped overseas. The Fuel Administration stimulated coal production and restricted its use. Ships were needed to send men, ammunition, and food overseas. The United States Shipping Board ordered ships in great numbers. The world's greatest shipyard was built near Philadelphia. More than 60 million dollars was spent on this shipyard, which had 50 shipways. Many ships were also constructed in California shipyards. Money was needed to pay the expenses of the armies and to loan to the Allies. Nearly 10 billion dollars was loaned to the Allies during the war. More than 21 billion dollars was advanced to the United States government by its citizens. This money came from the sale of Liberty and Victory bonds. The government increased its revenues by the passage of the new income-tax law (see Taxation).

How the Navy Helped

Admiral William S. Sims was sent to London in the spring of 1917. A fleet of destroyers followed him shortly thereafter. The destroyers helped to blockade Germany, pursued submarines, and convoyed merchant ships. Several United States battleships joined the British fleet. The Navy helped to lay contact mines across the English Channel and also closed the northern outlet of the North Sea (see Torpedo and Mine).

The AEF in Action

The AEF was tested in battle in the early summer of 1918. At Cantigny on May 26 the 1st Division took its objective and held it against counterattack. The next day the 2nd and 3rd Divisions hurried toward Chateau-Thierry to help fill the gap caused when the French armies broke before the Germans. In the next two weeks Belleau Wood became a household word in America. There the Marine Brigade and the Army regiments of the 2nd Division served heroically on June 1-26. In August Gen. Pershing and the Allied commanders agreed on a plan to use the American First Army as a single unit in a major offensive. On September 12-13 the Americans, supported by French artillery, took St-Mihiel, a salient that the Germans had held since their first drive in 1914. The battle of the Meuse-Argonne continued from September 26 until November 11. In the 47 days of action 29 American combat divisions were used. The battle was part of a general engagement that pressed against the entire length of the German line from Verdun to the English Channel. About 1,200,000 Americans took part. When the drive ended, the war was over.

Cost of the War

The cost of the American effort in World War I will never be entirely known. Americans killed in battle, dead of wounds, or declared dead numbered 53,407. Illness and other causes brought the total number of deaths to about 126,000. There were 204,002 wounded (not fatal). By June 30, 1919, the government had spent about $27,729,000,000 directly for the war and had lent its allies more than $9,455,000,000. Loans and costs growing out of the war were to continue for years. Indirect losses cannot be figured.

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