Presidents 34-36

Dwight D. Eisenhower

"I like Ike" was the winning slogan of presidential candidate Dwight Eisenhower. And "Ike" Eisenhower was one of the most trusted and respected Presidents of the twentieth century. Eisenhower was not an energetic innovator like Theodore or Franklin Roosevelt. He was a fatherly President who presided over a period of relative stability and prosperity.

Dwight David Eisenhower was born in Denison, Texas, but grew up in Abilene, Kansas. He went to West Point Military Academy to get a free college education, but was actually more interested in football than academics. During World War I, Eisenhower entered the army and requested overseas duty. He was disappointed to be assigned a job as training instructor instead. In the 1920s, he attended the Army's Command and General Staff School and the Army War College. Eisenhower rose steadily through the ranks in the 1930s, and for years he served on the staff of General Douglas MacArthur.

The Second World War was Eisenhower's opportunity to show his leadership ability. At first he was assigned to develop war plans in Washington, D.C. But he did such a good job that in June, 1942, Eisenhower was given command of American forces in Europe. Under his command, Allied armies mounted successful invasions of North Africa, Sicily, Italy, and France. General Eisenhower demonstrated diplomatic and political skills in negotiating the conflicting demands of generals and politicians of the Allied nations. Under his command, Allied armies achieved victory in Europe on May 7, 1945.

The Republicans nominated Eisenhower as their presidential candidate in 1952. The popular war hero defeated Democrat Adlai Stevenson by a landslide.

Eisenhower proved to be a dependable, middle-of-the-road President. He brought the Korean War to a conclusion in 1953; North and South Korea remained divided at the 38th parallel. Eisenhower easily won reelection in 1956, once again defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson. In 1957, he gave weight to the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) that segregated schools were unconstitutional. Eisenhower sent federal troops to enforce integration at an Arkansas high school. The growing movement for integration in all areas was one of the most notable features of Eisenhower's second term.

Throughout his presidency, the Cold War continued. Eisenhower did eventually condemn Senator Joseph McCarthy for his communist "witch hunts," and he did entertain Soviet leader Nikita Khruschev at the White House. But tensions between the United States and the Soviets were still high when he left office.

In some ways, the Eisenhower years were most notable for what they lacked: a major war, severe economic problems, or vast social unrest. The President with the winning smile and moderate views seemed to symbolize the strong and steady United States of the postwar years.

After his second term, Eisenhower retired to a farm near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania and wrote his memoirs. He died on March 28, 1969.

John F. Kennedy

Most Americans who were alive in November 1963 can remember where they were when they heard the news that President Kennedy had been assassinated. Kennedy's murder was especially shocking because he embodied the hopes of young people. Kennedy had said in his inauguration speech that "the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans." But sadly, Kennedy was not allowed to run with the torch for very long.

John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born into a wealthy Irish Catholic family in Brookline, Massachusetts. His ambitious father, Joseph Kennedy, wanted one of his sons to become a politician. When his oldest son was killed in World War II, the next oldest, John, was marked for the political role.

Kennedy took his degree in political science at Harvard University. Then, shortly before America entered World War II, he joined the navy. Joseph Kennedy used his influence to get John the command of a PT (patrol torpedo) boat. On August 2, 1943, the PT-109 was rammed by a Japanese destroyer and cut in two. Kennedy towed an injured crew member for four hours until they safely reached an island. But the ordeal worsened a chronic back problem, and he was discharged in early 1945.

After the war, at the age of 29, Kennedy became a member of Congress for Massachusetts. He was reelected twice, and then elected to the Senate in 1952. That September he also married Jacqueline Bouvier. John and Jacqueline had three children: Caroline, John Jr., and a second son who died in infancy.

In 1960, Kennedy won the Democratic nomination for President. Both Kennedy and his opponent, Republican Richard Nixon, campaigned with great energy. In the first presidential debates to be aired on television, Kennedy charmed viewers with his good looks and wit. He won the election by a narrow margin.

Kennedy's first term did not get off to a good start. In April, 1961 the United States Central Intelligence Agency landed an army of 1,500 Cuban exiles in Cuba in an attempt to overthrow the communist Castro government. This Bay of Pigs Invasion turned into a disaster that embarrassed the President and the nation.

In October, 1962, Kennedy learned that the Soviet Union was building missile bases in Cuba. In an attempt to keep the Soviets from installing nuclear missiles on the bases, he ordered a "quarantine" of the island. The American navy threatened to stop any Soviet ship that carried missiles to Cuba. Although it seemed as if the world teetered on the edge of a nuclear war, the Soviet Union eventually turned its ships away from Cuba. The Cuban Missile Crisis demonstrated that Kennedy could act decisively and intelligently under pressure.

Kennedy was president when Communist East Germany decided to build a wall across their city to cut off East Berliners from freedom in the West. In a powerful symbolic gesture, Kennedy went to the city to show support for all Berliners.

In domestic affairs, Kennedy proposed legislation to increase civil rights and fight poverty, but Congress refused to pass most of it. Congress did approve funding for the space program that would ultimately fulfill Kennedy's goal of putting an American on the moon.

Kennedy never lived to see that day. On November 22, 1963, while riding in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas, he was shot by Lee Harvey Oswald.

A grieving nation soon idealized its martyred President. Some people called the Kennedy years "Camelot," after the legendary city of King Arthur. Today, he remains in the memory of those old enough to remember him as one of our most magnetic Presidents.

Lyndon B. Johnson

Lyndon Johnson said that "Unfortunately, many Americans live on the outskirts of hope, some because of their poverty, and some because of their color, and all too often because of both. Our task is to help replace their despair with unconditional war on poverty in America." In his attempt to propose war on poverty and racism, Johnson orchestrated the passage of more sweeping progressive legislation than any President since Franklin Roosevelt. And yet, by the end of his first term, he had become so unpopular with the American people that he decided not to seek reelection.

Lyndon Baines Johnson was born near Johnson City, Texas, on August 27, 1908. His father and grandfather were state representatives, and as a child he attended sessions of the state legislature. Johnson won a seat in Congress in 1937 as a New Deal Democrat. He was reelected six times.

After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Johnson became the first member of Congress to go on active duty in the armed forces. He won a Silver Star when his plane was attacked by the Japanese over New Guinea. When President Roosevelt asked that members of Congress return to Washington, Johnson resigned his commission and returned to Congress.

Johnson moved to the Senate in 1948. In 1953 he became minority leader. When the Democrats won control of the Senate in 1955, he became the youngest majority leader in the history of the Senate. Johnson was one of the most powerful and effective leaders in congressional history. He knew how to use the levers of power as few other people did. He used committee appointments and office assignments to win support for legislation. But above all, he was a master at influencing people by the sheer force of his personality.

Presidential candidate John Kennedy chose Johnson as his running mate in 1959. Kennedy and Johnson beat Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge by a tiny margin. Johnson hated being Vice President. He had little of the power he had had in the Senate, and he did not get along with the young eastern liberals who made up Kennedy's Cabinet and staff.

On November 22, 1963, Johnson watched as Kennedy, riding two cars in front of him, was shot by an assassin. Later that day, Johnson was sworn in as President. Congress, which had been reluctant to pass many of Kennedy's proposals, behaved differently when Johnson became President. Johnson used all his political skills to pass his "Great Society" programs. Medicare and Medicaid were established to help the elderly and the poor pay for medical treatment. The Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1968, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 helped to protect the rights of African Americans and other minorities. Many of the programs Johnson established continue to help Americans today. But the cost of paying for the Great Society and the Vietnam War created a national debt that sapped the strength of the economy for years.

Johnson ran for reelection against Republican Barry Goldwater in 1964. Johnson successfully painted Goldwater as a right-wing extremist, and Johnson won the election by a landslide.

Johnson's second term was increasingly dominated by the Vietnam War. The war between North and South Vietnam had been raging for years, but Johnson was the first president to send large numbers of troops to try to defeat the communist north. The President found he was unable to win the war or negotiate peace. As American casualties escalated so did the protests against the war. When Johnson realized how unpopular his Vietnam policy had made him, he decided not to seek reelection in 1968.

Johnson retired to his Texas ranch and wrote his memoirs. He died of a heart attack on January 22, 1973.

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